September 1st, 2010
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All geckos have four limbs, each with five digits. The tongue is flat. Postorbital and squamosal arches are absent. The skin is soft and loose, and the scales are generally granular and non-overlapping. The following subfamilies were often considered full families in older literature:
Subfamily Gekkoninae: Vertebrae amphicoelous, parietals distinct, eyelids absent, nasal bones distinct.
Subfamily Eublepharidae: Vertebrae procoelous, parietal single, movable eyelids present.
Subfamily Uroplatinae: As Gekkoninae, but nasal bones united.
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Tags: Arches, Digits, Edmonton, Geckos, Literature, Mazda5, Mazda6, Movable Eyelids, Nasal Bones, Scales, Tongue, Vertebrae
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September 1st, 2010
HEART
The saurian heart is a three chambered pump. It consists of a right and left auricle and a large ventrical chamber.
JACOBSON’S ORGAN
This celebrated feature is probably better developed in snakes than lizards. It is a system of nerves entering a cavity in the roof of the mouth. When air particles are collected with the tongue, the lizard places the tongue against this organ for analysis.
SKIN
The epidermal coat of lizards is a scaly layer, the scales usually overlapping. Because the animals are poikilothermic and because they need not be kept moist, the skin is remarkably devoid of glands. In some species there may be a fine coat of bead-like bony pieces beneath the skin. These are called osteo-derms. They may be fused to the bones of the head, making the skin immovable.
The scales themselves may be smooth or keeled. If they are smooth, they will feel like fine leather and very often appear polished. If they are keeled, they may be rough or spiny, depending on the species.
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August 28th, 2010
EAR
The ear is an important organ for balance as well as hearing. Sound waves hitting the tympanic membrane are relayed by the bone structure to an auditory nerve where the impulse is received and transmitted to the brain for analysis. Even in “earless” lizards there is some internal structure, although sound might be detected by certain jaw bones.
BRAIN
While it is a well known fact that the brain of a huge dinosaur was scarcely the size of a walnut, the brains of modern reptiles are small and simple in structure. This is the principal scent detector and varies in size depending upon the capabilities of scent detection among species. Beneath the cerebral hemispheres is a small stalk containing the pituitary gland (growth and development) and the thalamus and hypothalamus (activity and homoeostatic controls). This central stalk as a whole is called the diencephalon.
Behind the cerebral hemispheres is the midbrain. This may also be referred to as the optic lobe, as it is here that the message from the eye is translated. If present, the pineal eye may still have the nerve that connects with the midbrain.
Next come the cerebellum and medulla. The medulla is the start of the spinal cord. It regulates heartbeat and respiration, and it is to this area that the messages for balance are sent from the ear.
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Tags: Auditory Nerve, Bone Structure, Cerebellum, Cerebral Hemispheres, Diencephalon, Growth And Development, Hypothalamus, Internal Structure, Jaw Bones, Lizards, Midbrain, Optic Lobe, Pineal Eye, Pituitary Gland, Respiration, Scent Detection, Sound Waves, Stalk, Thalamus, Tympanic Membrane
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July 28th, 2010
Something needs to be said about negative evidence. Modern science regards a hypothesis as scientific (i.e. in the true spirit of science) if it produces testable predictions. If the tests produce a positive result then that does not prove the hypothesis is correct, although it might be; it only show that it has not been found to be incorrect. If the tests produce a negative result that does not mean that the hypothesis was false, although it might be. Falsification only means that the hypothesis has been contradicted in given conditions. Nevertheless evidence inconsistent with a hypothesis is usually taken as falsification. Here we have two, and only two, rival hypotheses, H and H Each makes a prediction, the one that L Ness holds N, and the other that it does not hold N. Both hypotheses are testable (and so, scientific). In fact they are testable by the same experiment, namely a thorough search of L Ness. Short of such a conclusive test, there is bound to be what is considered to be incidental positive and negative evidence We shall examine the claims for positive evidence, but the negative evidence tends to be overlooked. Thousands of people each year look at L Ness and do not see N; hundreds take pictures which do not show N. Here we can only deal with the negative evidence produced by the failure of purposeful searches, but when considering the positive evidence (much of which will turn out to be negative) readers should remember its relationship to a mass of unrecorded negative evidence.
Strictly speaking evidence is not really evidence until it has passed a number of stringent tests. Thus in a court, while a witness may give his evidence, what he says may only be regarded as relevant evidence if it withstands cross-examination. Similarly in science, prima facie evidence must l examined critically, and only if it withstands that examination can it be regarded as sound evidence. The evidence for N stands as prima facie evidence until it has been examined, and it remains to be seen whether or not, after examination, there is any good evidence for the existence of N.
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Tags: Conclusive Test, Cross Examination, Failure, Hypotheses, Hypothesis, Loch Ness, Loch Ness Monster, Modern Science, Negative Evidence, Negative Result, Prima Facie Evidence, Relationship, Relevant Evidence, Sound Evidence, Stringent Tests, Testable Predictions, True Spirit, Witness
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July 19th, 2010
Tradition itself offers no evidence for N, and there is no reason to associate modern reports with the tradition. The association made by Alex Campbell was completely unjustified and betrayed his ignorance of the origin of the myth. TIN exists then that existence can only be determined by modern evidence. It is as if we wipe out all previous ideas and ask de novo whether or not an unknown aquatic species inhabits L Ness (and other lakes). Unconcerned about the reasons why anyone should believe in the existence of N, we may examine the modern evidence in a detached manner.
On Evidence
Evidence is a term that requires definition. Evidence is testimony or facts in support of or for a conclusion, and in science it usually means data in support of a hypothesis. Here the hypothesis is that an unknown aquatic species (N) lives in L Ness; this may be called H Hypotheses usually exist to explain some phenomenon, and it may be that H exists to explain many alleged anomalous phenomena reported from L Ness. On the other hand, it maybe that all the phenomena have simple explanations, and that it is only because of the existence of H (whose origin we have already explored) that the phenomena are thought to be anomalous. In that case N does not exist and the null hypothesis (H is appropriate.
Costello believes that there is sufficient evidence for the existence of N to satisfy a ‘scrupulous historian’. I doubt that, but in any case it is not a matter for historians. There must be sufficient evidence to satisfy a physical scientist, preferably a zoologist, although he would not be the best person to examine the available evidence, much of which involves complex technology and physics. But what constitutes evidence? As Bauer has noted, it is by no means obvious what is evidence and what is not; what is thought to be evidence by one person will be thought irrelevant by another. Further, much of the evidence is circumstantial and it is not easy to get access to the original evidence. It seems sensible to take as the primary evidence that which is presented by the majority of the monster-hunters (necessarily believers in the existence of N). However, for the sake of completeness I shall at least list all known instrumental evidence, some of which has already been repudiated by the principal hunters. Discarded evidence will be given less space than that which the hunters themselves regard as important. The onus of proof is always on those who claim to have discovered an anomaly, and in this case it rests on those who claim to have evidence for the existence of N.
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Tags: Alex Campbell, Anomalous Phenomena, Aquatic Species, Bauer, Complex Technology, Existence, Historian, Historians, Hypotheses, Myth, Null Hypothesis, Phenomenon, Physical Scientist, Physics, Simple Explanations, Testimony, Tin, Tradition, What Constitutes Evidence, Zoologist
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July 16th, 2010
This idea of an inverted world may have come from sight of the reflection of the ‘upper’ world in calm water surfaces. A reflection was a mysterious phenomenon to primitive peoples, who usually gave it mystical qualities.
If water was the domain of the other-world, then those who ventured onto lakes were violating that world and were in danger of punishment. Necessarily folklore must have developed around this concept, and any unusual lake phenomenon must have been interpreted as a manifestation of this underworld. Because there was a general belief in the existence of the underworld and its creatures it was inevitable that some would claim to have seen these creatures (there are always those who claim to have seen what others have merely postulated). These reports must then have fed and reinforced the myth. However, as Grimshaw and Lester have warned, it is a mistake to place reliance on the myth as evidence for N’s existence: ‘the presence/non-presence of an item in the framework of the myth is simply incommensurate with the question of existence/non existence’ . In effect, the myth can be explained without the existence of N, and it offers no kind of substantial evidence for N. Mackal notes that the belief of the Potawatomi tribe, that monsters live in both L Maniton (Devil’s L) near Rochester in northern Indiana, and Bass L, seems to be derived from the widespread remains of (fossilized) mastodon bones throughout the area. The Indians concluded that the bones are those of lake monsters whose descendants still inhabit the lakes, and this belief was later transmitted to the settlers, who also feared the lakes.
Grimshaw and Lester noted that the sinister kelpie contrasts remarkably with the harmless lovable modern N. They attributed this conversion to the interest in prehistoric monsters stimulated by the concrete models shown at the Great Exhibition in the Crystal Palace (London) in 1851. Monsters of all sorts then entered the popular imagination and a belief in sea serpents developed. As early as 1859 Philip Gosse popularized the plesiosaur as an explanation for the mystery of the sea serpent. Folklore thus modernized itself by adapting to the findings of science 8 When Gould explained N as a lake-locked sea serpent it was inevitable that the former would then be regarded as a plesiosaur. This notion has been particularly persistent; despite the lack of evidence for sea serpents, or the implausibility of Gould’s hypothesis (that a sea serpent had somehow travelled unseen up the River Ness).
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Tags: Calm Water, Concrete Models, Crystal Palace London, Descendants, Folklore, Great Exhibition, Grimshaw, Kelpie, Lake Monsters, Loch Ness, Loch Ness Monster, Manifestation, Mastodon Bones, Mysterious Phenomenon, Mystical Qualities, Northern Indiana, Potawatomi Tribe, Primitive Peoples, Substantial Evidence, Water Surfaces
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July 14th, 2010
The existence of N was announced in 1933, apparently after a spectacular demonstration (though see p. 29), but the announcement owed much to the personal beliefs of a local water bailiff, Alex Campbell. Among other things (he distorted the account in a number of ways) he alleged that what had been seen was the ‘water kelpie’, a ‘fearsome-looking monster’ that had ‘for generations’ been credited with living in L Ness.’ Many readers of his report must have wondered why, if N had lived for so long in the lake, they had not heard of it before. In fact there had been previous reports, but for various reasons these had not been relayed by newspapers outside Scotland. Others have dealt with the reason for N’s sudden notoriety and here we are more concerned with the evidence for its existence. However, it is relevant to ask about the tradition to which Alex Campbell referred.
There was a widespread Highland belief that a water horse or kelpie inhabited not only L Ness but nearly every lake in Scotland. It was said to be an evil spirit which not only lured travellers to their death by drowning but took a delight in doing so. Because this explained why people drowned in lakes it may be concluded that the myth originated from a need to explain such drownings. Moon records that when a swimming horse disappeared in the middle of L Okanagan (see p. 104) the drowning was attributed to the presence of the lake demon, later identified with the monster Ogopogo. Often the body never reappeared and it must have been assumed that it had been taken to some other world. This is certainly true of L Ness, which is wrongly thought never to give up its dead.
In Ireland, where the Scots originated, thI people supposed that this world is duplicated underwater, and they told tales of cows, bulls, dogs, and horses from that other-world. Sometimes these animals were captured, the water horses being broken to the plough. In certain
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Tags: Alex Campbell, Bailiff, Belief That, Bulls, Cows, Demon, Dogs And Horses, Evil Spirit, Generations, Monster, Moon Records, Myth, Notoriety, Personal Beliefs, Plough, Scots, Spectacular Demonstration, Travellers, Water Horse, Water Horses
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